Modern Wallpaper Biography
Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement in the arts, its set of cultural tendencies and associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In particular the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by the horror of World War I, were among the factors that shaped Modernism. Related terms are modern, modernist, contemporary, and postmodern.
Modernism explicitly rejects the ideology of realism,[2][3][4] and makes use of the works of the past, through the application of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[5][6][7] Modernism also rejects the lingering certainty of Enlightenment thinking, as well as the idea of a compassionate, all-powerful Creator. [8][9]
In general, the term modernism encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the "traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social, and political conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was paradigmatic of the movement's approach towards the obsolete. Another paradigmatic exhortation was articulated by philosopher and composer Theodor Adorno, who, in the 1940s, challenged conventional surface coherence and appearance of harmony typical of the rationality of Enlightenment thinking.[10] A salient characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness. This self-consciousness often led to experiments with form and work that draws attention to the processes and materials used (and to the further tendency of abstraction).[11]
The modernist movement, at the beginning of the 20th century, marked the first time that the term avant-garde, with which the movement was labeled until the word "modernism" prevailed, was used for the arts (rather than in its original military and political context)Two of the most significant thinkers of the period were biologist Charles Darwin (1809–82), author of On Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–83), author of Capital (1867). Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free. Both thinkers were major influences on the development of modernism.[citation needed] This is not to say that all modernists, or modernist movements rejected either religion, or all aspects of Enlightenment thought, rather that modernism questioned the axioms of the previous age.[citation needed]
Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. William Everdell, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, with mathamatician Richard Dedekind (1831–1916) (Dedekind cut) and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844–1906) statistical thermodynamics.[17] On the other hand Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) "the first real Modernist",[18] though he also wrote, "What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture)."[19]
The beginning of the 20th century marked the first time a movement in the arts was described as "avant-garde"—a term previously used in military and political contexts,[12] which remained to describe movements which identify themselves as attempting to overthrow some aspect of tradition or the status quo.[citation needed] Surrealism gained the fame among the public of being the most extreme form of modernism, or "the avant-garde of modernism".[20]
Separately, in the arts and letters, two ideas originating in France would have particular impact. The first was impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement.
The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with the poet Charles Baudelaire (1861–67) (Fleur du mal, 1857), and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91), Paul Verlaine (1844–96), Stephane Mallarme (1842–98), and Paul Valery (1871–1945). The symbolists "stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy," and were especially interested in "the musical properties of language."[21]
At the same time social, political, and economic forces were at work that would become the basis to argue for a radically different kind of art and thinking. Among these was steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s, and the subsequent advancements in engineering and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854) and King's Cross Station (1852). These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people.
The human misery of crowded industrial cities, as well as, on the other hand, the new possibilities created by science, brought changes that would shake European civilization, which had, until then, regarded itself as having a continuous and progressive line of development from the Renaissance. Furthermore the human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of electric telegraph from 1837, and the adoption of Standard Time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.
The changes that took place at the beginning of the 20th-century are emphasized by the fact that many modern disciplines, including physics, economics, and arts such as ballet and architecture, call their pre-20th century forms classical.
Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement in the arts, its set of cultural tendencies and associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In particular the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by the horror of World War I, were among the factors that shaped Modernism. Related terms are modern, modernist, contemporary, and postmodern.
Modernism explicitly rejects the ideology of realism,[2][3][4] and makes use of the works of the past, through the application of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[5][6][7] Modernism also rejects the lingering certainty of Enlightenment thinking, as well as the idea of a compassionate, all-powerful Creator. [8][9]
In general, the term modernism encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the "traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social, and political conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was paradigmatic of the movement's approach towards the obsolete. Another paradigmatic exhortation was articulated by philosopher and composer Theodor Adorno, who, in the 1940s, challenged conventional surface coherence and appearance of harmony typical of the rationality of Enlightenment thinking.[10] A salient characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness. This self-consciousness often led to experiments with form and work that draws attention to the processes and materials used (and to the further tendency of abstraction).[11]
The modernist movement, at the beginning of the 20th century, marked the first time that the term avant-garde, with which the movement was labeled until the word "modernism" prevailed, was used for the arts (rather than in its original military and political context)Two of the most significant thinkers of the period were biologist Charles Darwin (1809–82), author of On Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–83), author of Capital (1867). Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free. Both thinkers were major influences on the development of modernism.[citation needed] This is not to say that all modernists, or modernist movements rejected either religion, or all aspects of Enlightenment thought, rather that modernism questioned the axioms of the previous age.[citation needed]
Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. William Everdell, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, with mathamatician Richard Dedekind (1831–1916) (Dedekind cut) and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844–1906) statistical thermodynamics.[17] On the other hand Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) "the first real Modernist",[18] though he also wrote, "What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture)."[19]
The beginning of the 20th century marked the first time a movement in the arts was described as "avant-garde"—a term previously used in military and political contexts,[12] which remained to describe movements which identify themselves as attempting to overthrow some aspect of tradition or the status quo.[citation needed] Surrealism gained the fame among the public of being the most extreme form of modernism, or "the avant-garde of modernism".[20]
Separately, in the arts and letters, two ideas originating in France would have particular impact. The first was impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement.
The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with the poet Charles Baudelaire (1861–67) (Fleur du mal, 1857), and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91), Paul Verlaine (1844–96), Stephane Mallarme (1842–98), and Paul Valery (1871–1945). The symbolists "stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy," and were especially interested in "the musical properties of language."[21]
At the same time social, political, and economic forces were at work that would become the basis to argue for a radically different kind of art and thinking. Among these was steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s, and the subsequent advancements in engineering and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854) and King's Cross Station (1852). These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people.
The human misery of crowded industrial cities, as well as, on the other hand, the new possibilities created by science, brought changes that would shake European civilization, which had, until then, regarded itself as having a continuous and progressive line of development from the Renaissance. Furthermore the human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of electric telegraph from 1837, and the adoption of Standard Time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.
The changes that took place at the beginning of the 20th-century are emphasized by the fact that many modern disciplines, including physics, economics, and arts such as ballet and architecture, call their pre-20th century forms classical.
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